Employment Dispute Resolution in Singapore

1. Introduction a. Objectives The objective of the report is to provide a better understanding of the roles of the different courts in settling employment disputes. At the end of the report, reader would be able to find alternatives in settling employment disputes too. b. Methods of Research In this report, there will be real life case studies settled by different courts for settling disputes. These cases will help in illustrating the criteria for using the different courts. This report will also include internet research. 2. Causes of DisputesDisputes are caused when both parties, namely the employer and employee, cannot come into an agreement over monetary issues such as wages, benefits and overtime pay. Other circumstance will be a violation of health safety standards or law that can be common law or related to employment. Court cases will arise when these disputes are not resolved by conciliation or mediation. 3. Acts Relating to Employment There are two main acts that concern th e procedures of settling disputes. They are the Employment Act (EA) and Industrial Relations Act (IRA). c. Employment ActFor employees covered by the Employment Act, employment disputes will only be referred to the Labour Court for adjudication if they are unable to be resolved amicably through conciliation. Conciliation is a process which involves negotiations between the parties, then coming up with a mutually agreed decision that is fair to the parties involved. However, certain conditions must be satisfied, that the claim must be on matters arising not earlier than one year from the date of lodging the claim, and if the employee concerned had already left employment, the claim must be lodged within six months from the date of leaving employment.For managers and executives who are not covered by the Employment Act, the Ministry will consider providing mediation service to help resolve employment disputes on breach of contract or retrenchment. Mediation, a non-adversarial process, involves a mediator who will facilitate the entire process by helping the parties involved to first identify issues, negotiate, then find a practical solution and settlement that all parties involved are mutually agreeable to and able to accept. The mediation process is voluntary and considered on a case-by-case basis.There are certain requirements that will apply, which includes that the managers and executives are earning $4500 and below, the claim is in respect of a matter which occurred within the period of one year before the date that the issue is reported, if the claim is for items related to their termination (e. g. notice, the issue must be lodged within six months from the date on which the employee has left employment), and when viable alternatives such as private amicable settlement with employer had been exhausted.However, if either party fails to respond to mediation or if no amicable settlement could be reached after mediation, the matter will then be pursued in the civil court. d. Industrial Relations Act The Industrial Relations Act is passed in 1960 to provide a mean to settle employment disputes through collective bargaining which involves the union, conciliation and if unresolved, through arbitration held by the Industrial Arbitration court. This act aims to protect employees who are members of the union, allowing them to enjoy benefits covered under.Examples of union include the Food, Drinks and Allied Workers Union and Singapore Airlines Staff Union. This act limits the representation of employees who are in managerial and executive positions in certain areas. As defined in Section 30(1) of Industrial Relations Act, an executive employee is an employee who is employed in a managerial or executive position. They are not allowed to have representatives from the union to negotiate for retrenchment benefits upon retrenchment or resolving any dispute in the contract of employment.As this act is a bridge to the tripartite relationship in Singa pore, namely the government, employer and employee, there are certain procedures to follow in accordance to filing a case against the employer in a unionized organization. Preceding the filing, the employee would have to try to resolve the dispute with his immediate supervisor. Failing that, he or she can choose to bring the matter up to a member of the branch committee of the Union who would make a representation of the employee in resolving the dispute.In more serious cases, it can be brought up to the Human Resource Department by the General Secretary of Union and may even request a union management meeting with the management of the company. After all means, both parties will then refer the case to Ministry of Manpower for conciliation which is an invitation to negotiate under the Act. If an agreement is not reached by both parties, they can seek mediation by the Industrial Arbitration Court. 4. Different Courts The employees covered under the different acts will bring up their unresolved disputes to different courts. . Labour Court The Labour Court, deals with issues between employers and employees when they cannot be resolved through mediation or reconciliation at the MOM level. It is empowered by law to inquire into and arbitrate disputes between employees and employers. If mediation between the parties does not yield any agreement, for example, company not paying their employee salary or wrongful dismissal. The decisions or orders by the Labour Court are enforceable. It is also more viable for the employee to go through the Labour Court to settle employment disputes.However, the employees must not be earning more than S$2500 per month and are covered under the Employment Act. In the case of Vertex Global Holdings Pte Ltd, they owed an employee in arrears for about 2. 5 months. They gave the reason of having financial difficulties and were not able to pay the employee. The case was brought up to the Labour Court but they did not accept this explanation and the company was ordered to pay the employee amounting to $2820. In another case whereby a cook employed by VP Food Pte Ltd, he was terminated after 3 days.However, the employer was to pay him a sum of $235. 38 for work done but was underpaid. The reason that the employer gave was the distress caused by the cook’s harassment and there was no notice period specified. The explanation was rejected. The court held that Employment Act prevails and notice pay was payable In such cases, Labour Court comes into good use when dealing with unfair treatment from the company. But in recent years, the number of cases being brought up to Labour Court has decreased from 2009 to 2010.This shows that mediation or reconciliation has contributed to a huge part of the decrease in number of cases and they would be a better solution to problems than going to court. f. Industrial Arbitration Court Employment disputes, concerning union members, are not resolve under the conciliation of MOM are re ferred to the Singapore Industrial Arbitration Court (IAC) for further remediation. The IAC resolve disputes between employers and employees by offering the best possible solutions that are not only fair and beneficial to both parties but also in the interest of the community and country’s economic situation.The decision made by the Justice of IAC is concluding hence it cannot be disputed or appealed against. Voluntary and compulsory arbitration are the two ways that employers, unions or the government can refer an employment disputes to the IAC. Through the voluntary arbitration, employers and unions can refer their cases to the IAC through a joint or ex-parte application however this is only applicable when mediation at the MOM level is deem inconclusive. Under compulsory arbitration, a dispute is referred to the IAC when it is directed by the MOM or the President of Singapore.With increasing efforts from tripartite co-operation, Singapore has seen a great decrease in the n umber of cases being handled at IAC. The number of employment dispute cases averaged 10 per year and this indicate that that majority of the cases are being resolved at MOM and union level. This is essential as it helps to reduce unnecessary loss of work man hours and provide foreign investor’s confidence to invest in Singapore which in turn boosts the Singapore economy. Over the years, IAC has proven to be an effective way in solving disputes between employees and employers however there are cases when one party might feel otherwise.In the case of the dispute between Singapore Refinery Company and the representing union, the general secretary of SRCEU mentioned that â€Å"the union is disappointed with the ruling as a whole. † The case was brought up to the IAC for settlement as the union demanded salary and service increment for SRC employees. The president of IAC concluded that SRC will increase the service increment to 5 per cent plus $15 and 3 per cent salary incr ement. The union felt that the increment was too low and there was no effective communication between them and the company.This case show that whiles the IAC may provide the best feasible solution however it does not mean that it is the best fit for all the parties involved in the dispute. g. Civil Court The role of civil courts in resolving employment disputes is at minimal. Disputes raised by Professionals, Manager and Executives, also known as the PMEs, earning up to S$4,500, are solved in civil court. However, the Ministry of Manpower in Singapore is looking into resolving their salary disputes in Labour Court in the near future, limiting it to S$20,000.This allows PMEs to seek a lower cost alternative in resolving their disputes. For breaches in employment contract, it will still be handled by civil courts under law of contract. 5. Comparison h. Differences Between The 3 Courts | Civil Court| Labour Court| Industrial Arbitration Court| What they settle? | Employment disputes on breach of contract or retrenchment that cannot be resolved through mediation| Employment disputes that cannot be settled through conciliation| Trade disputes that cannot resolve through conciliation| How they settle? The role of Civil Court in resolving disputes is at minimal. Civil Court handles breaches in employment contract under law of contract. | The court has the authority to analyse and settle disputes(for example, unfair treatment from the company)| Resolve employment dispute through arbitration. The decision made by the Justice of IAC cannot be disputed or appealed against. | Criteria| PMEs(Professionals, Manager and Executives) earning up to $4,500| No legal representation is allowed in Labour Court.Employees not earning more than $2,500 per month and are covered under Employment Act| An executive employee who are employed in a managerial or executive position are not allowed to have representatives from the union to negotiate for them(retrenchment or disputes in the con tract of employment)| Who can go? | Managers and executives that are not covered under Employment Act| Employers and Employees under Employment Act| Employers and trade unions| In the past, Singapore employment law has been favorable to employers.However, the trend in recent years shows that enhancement of employee welfare and safety became more important. i. Singapore versus United States of America Both countries show various similarities of the roles of court in settling employment disputes. In United States of America (USA), employees are allowed to sue for dismissal due to discrimination of gender, religion, origin and many more. Employees are generally protected against discrimination under U. S Equal Opportunity Commission (EEOC).In Singapore, employers are encouraged to practice fair employment promoted by Tripartite Alliance for Fair Employment Practices (TAFEP). In both countries, employees are allowed to bring their employers to court in any event that there are employmen t disputes and unresolved by conciliation and arbitration. However, there are differences too. In United States of America, the government is more in favor of the employees whereas in Singapore, the government is more in favor of the employers.Also, in any disputes, the United States of America allows employees to hire a lawyer or an attorney to represent them in court. In Singapore, employees covered under different acts are represented by different people such as the union leader or even unrepresented in front of the labour court. The different courts are designed to different cases involving money or other disputes while all disputes in United States are brought to only one court. 6. Conclusion Through intensive research and findings, this report covers the key points on how the different courts resolve employment disputes.Although MOM have proven to be an effective medium in mediating disputes between employers and employees, there is still a need for the presence of court to re solve cases that are more complex. Case studies are being brought up in the report to further illustrate how disputes are being resolved at different levels. In referring to the SRC case, it clearly highlight that although the IAC has provided the best possible remedy however it does not satisfy all parties who are involved in the case.This means that better procedures can be considered to better understand the problems underlying between employees and employers. Through our recommendations, it will provide possible solution to further enhance the system that is already in place. The recommendation will not only look at the current problems but it will also propose how corporations can create a harmonious working relationship among employers and employees. 7. Recommendations

Army. the Military Accountability

The importance of accountability. In the military accountability is very important. Your NCOs need to keep accountability at all times, the need to know where you are going to be so they find you in case you have formations, or something else important comes up. If you are not accounted for and your NCO does not know where you are a lot of things could happen as far as being listed as AWOL. You could get in so much trouble over being in a AWOL status like an article 15 or worse, prison time. Accountability is also very important during deployments. Being deployed is a serious situation. Anything could happen out there. Your NCO must know where you are at all times. It’s a serious issue when someone is not accounted for while deployed. If you come up unaccounted for the company will need all personnel for one hundred percent accountability. If that missing person still doesn’t show. He or she is listed as AWOL and a search occurs. Now, most cases the soldier just didn’t let their NCO know where he or she was. In other cases the soldier was having life issues and couldn’t handle it anymore. When you are found consequences will occur such as an article 15 which includes extra duty, loss of pay and loss of rank. Some people like myself can’t afford for this to happen as most of us have families. Formations are one way to keep accountability. You may have three formations a day. One for the rising of the flag, one before starting your work day and one at the end of the day and lowering of the flag. If you are not there this could happen lited above, or a negative counseling statement. It is also important because it tells the unit commanders how many personnel are available to perform certain tasks. If a leader does not know how many troops are available then he/she will not know who is available to do what. Being accountable means being dependable, arriving to work, and appointments on time, meeting deadlines, being in the right place at the right time, and doing the right things at all times even when no one is looking. Being accountable also includes being in the right uniform, and having all necessary equipment, gear, and documents that you might need for that day in order to accomplish that days mission. The importance of accountability, are being on time and in the right uniform. The main reason we have formations and that we are trying to keep account of personnel to know where everybody is at, at all times. accountability is the most important asset here for work. In doing so it makes sure that everybody is on the same page at the same time in order to do that you have to follow orders that were given to you.

Performance Management System

Contents 1. Performance management on the benefits of a company or organization. 2. Examples and behavior of Performance management. 3. Performance Management Systems 4. Human Capital and Strategic Planning 5. Recommendations Performance management on the benefits of a company or organization. Successful organizations know that to win in today’s competitive marketplace they must attract, develop, and retain a talented and productive staff.Winning organizations get their competitive edge from a performance management system that communicates the organization’s vision and values, aligns individual and team performance goals with the organization’s strategic objectives, outlines career development paths for each team member, and provides ongoing feedback for staff development. We will guide you through the development of your Competency Based Performance Management System, customizing the program to reflect the unique needs of your organization.A Senior Consultant w ill work with your leadership team to develop a model that will maximize employee input, buy-in and utilization of the new review process. Performance management system training is a process that uses your employees to their full potential, developing the talents of the existing workforce as a cost-effective way to increase the bottom line. These systematic training programs ensure the goals of your company are consistently met by each individual employee.Performance management helps evaluate each employee to see if he is in the right position, and a continued training program develops his skills to their highest level. Having a common goal among employees and management is what makes a company successful. Performance management system training teaches and develops these common goals. When you train your employees effectively, they know what is expected of them and need less monitoring. Employee morale is boosted when each employee feels she is adequately qualified for her job posit ion.Positive morale has proven to increase productivity, which ultimately means higher profits for the business. Performance management includes employee appraisals as a necessary first step. Discerning how your employees currently perform helps you determine how you would like them to perform. You can then set the goals necessary to bridge that gap. You will create a checklist of what you want to assess in each employee, establish a deadline for completing the appraisals and determine how you will go about the evaluation.Performance management is all about motivating employees to do better, so these appraisals are an opportunity for supervisor and staff to mutually agree on goals that will help them succeed. Examples and behavior of Performance management. A management system is the framework of processes and procedures used to ensure that an organization can fulfill all tasks required to achieve its objectives. For instance, an environmental management system enables organizations to improve their environmental performance through a process of continuous improvement.An oversimplification is â€Å"Plan, Do, Check, Act†. A more complete system would include accountability (an assignment of personal responsibility) and a schedule for activities to be completed, as well as auditing tools to implement corrective actions in addition to scheduled activities, creating an upward spiral of continuous improvement. Also as in the aforementioned management system, an occupational health and safety management system enables an organization to control its occupational health and safety risks and to improve its performance by means of continuous improvement.A management system is a proven framework for managing and continually improving your organization's policies, procedures and processes. The best businesses work as complete units with a shared vision. This may encompass information sharing, benchmarking, team working and working to the highest quality and environ mental principles. A management system helps your organization to achieve these goals through a number of strategies, including process optimization, management focus and disciplined management thinking. Performance Management SystemsPerformance management is a discipline that aims at promoting organizational performance by managing the human capital of an organization. The know-how, skills and capabilities that inherent and used by workers in an organization are referred to as human capital. Human capital is an integral asset of any business, company or organization and many of them have concentrated their investments of human capital. Why are organizations interested in the development management and promotion of human capital? Is human capital becoming more and more relevant to organizations?Studies have indicated that there is a huge overt and covert influence of human capital on the performance of any organization and business and there has been intensive research on human capi tal as a factor in business and organizational performance. This is why organizations are increasingly empowering their human resource departments which deal with the human capital. It has been proved by various studies that any practice that promotes or enhances human capital influences organizational performance directly by molding organizational behavior and attitudes.Human capital also creates structural and operational focal points that improve efficiency. According to most business executives, people are the most integral assets in any organization because they are the ones that make the rest of the assets to function. They have proved that investment in people often lead to improved revenue and profit margins. However the problem that arises from this assertion is that human capital as an asset is not tangible. This means that is cannot be in any way captured in financial results and statement.This puts a challenge on the business executives to empirically prove that investme nts in the human capital adds positive value to an organization that results to the growth of the organization and additional, value to the shareholders. There are some indicators that can measure the effectiveness of human capital in a business. They include the image of the organization, popularity with headhunters, experience, satisfaction and loyalty but these signals are not efficient because they do not put a real estimate on the added value to the company.In simple terms, the influence of human capital on the growth of a business is something that cannot be easily documented quantitatively. This is what challenges business executives in their attempt to claim that people are the most important asset in any business. This complicates their quest for the organizations to allow more funding to enhance and promote the human capital they claim is the most integral asset. The human resource management departments in organizations in Australia have realized that human capital needs additional support for the organizations to grow in terms of market share, competitive advantage and revenue base.The emphasis on human capital by businesses and organizations in Australia is based not only on conventional ideals of human capital but also on the contemporary knowledge and information based world of organizations. in a society which is becoming revolutionized by technology, the concept of human capital cannot remain static. For businesses to remain competitive and productive in this digital age, the workforce must therefore be equipped with the relevant skills to keep them at par with the dynamics of technology.This will ensure that things to do with on job training must be emphasized. Additional financial capital needs to be channeled towards the human resource departments to facilitate the training of the workforce. Human Capital and Strategic Planning Strategic decision making must precede the HR functions of the organizations because it is the strategic decisions made that will determine how the strategic functions will be carried out. An organization must therefore identify its missions and visions which must be articulated to all the shareholders.Clear visions and missions are very fundamental for the development of HR strategies because they have to be relevant with the literacy levels and the competencies of the employees who will have to face the challenge of delivering it. One of the problems faced by organizations is the development of unrealistic strategic plans that completely destabilize the HR functions. This is because at times there is absence of leadership competence that does not understand that there is an umbilical cord that connects the strategies with their relevance to the people who will be supposed to execute it.This is why the HR department must also be part of the strategic decision making process and the best way of helping in the making of the strategic decisions is by using its competencies model where the compete ncies of the already existing employees are factored in such that while most of the visions and missions being planned will be planned around the competencies and the creativity levels of the existing employees.This will minimize the need to make a complete overhaul or a reengineering that would be occasioned by strategic decisions that do not factor in the competencies of the employees. Where the strategic decisions go beyond the competencies of the existing HR, external recruitment would be the most appropriate HR function otherwise, internal promotions based on competencies and performance would be the most viable option as long as the competencies and the performance of the existing HR is factored in during the strategic decision making process (Bradford, 2000).The strategic plans can be easily realized using a HR team that is already acquainted with the practices of the organization meaning that the internal promotions would be the most viable HR practice especially when recrui ting for middle level and top management positions. The use of the correct HR practices will enable an organization to adopt a holistic approach that will enable it to capitalize on the competitive market trends avoiding internal divisions and personal agendas that end up blocking the path to the realization of the strategic plans.Recommendations There are a few recommendations that will made that will help in the improvement of performance management systems 1. Firms should invest more in human capital because it is the single most important economic resource of any organization 2. The human capital should be availed with the necessary resources for them to be able to give firms a competitive advantage 3.Human capital should be included in the strategic decisions of a firm because they are the ones who will work on the strategies 4. A collective culture in should be enhanced in firms in order to give the human capital the correct working environment 5. There should be management an d leadership styles that support and motivate the human capital to enhance its performance

Elements of a Statement of Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Elements of a Statement of Work - Essay Example Most of the resources recommend that a good SOW document should tell clients a story starting with â€Å"why†, then â€Å"how† and â€Å"what† and finally â€Å"when† and â€Å"how much† in a logical order to make a follow up an easy task. A statement of works comprises of various elements with some formats omitting some particularly the ones that do not have much importance. This paper will discuss the most critical components of a statement of works and explain what Breakdown Structure (WBS) accomplishes. Under this section, vendors are required to define the â€Å"why† by stating the marketing or the objective of the business with respect to the project, as well as state a high-level overview of the resolution. This ensures that the vendor has clarity as to why he or she is undertaking the work (project) and hence can now start weaving the story. Under this section of SOW, a vendor is required to define the â€Å"what† and â€Å"how† of the weaved story in attempt to fully define the work being performed and outline a concise process that explains how the work will be done. It involves the following tasks that must be written in a chronological order Any assumption relating to the tasks that has been made while preparing SOW must be included in this part since assumptions are inevitable in any SOW document. It is also highly advisable that preparers should start precisely the deliverables produced while clearly describing them with regard to size which can be approximated, but expressed using words like â€Å"up to† so that if the supplier produces less can still be fulfilling the contract (Lessard & Lessard, 2007). Tasks should never be listed under deliverables since deliverables are items handed off to clients for review and approval. Moreover, it is advisable to avoid giving clients options under this section since all decisions ought to be made by this stage. Schedule section defines the

Madea, world literature volume A book Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Madea, world literature volume A book - Essay Example Medea is basically the story of a woman who engages in a desperate struggle to maintain her position and survive in the Greek world that is dominated by unsympathetic men. Taking charge of life was a thing unheard of for a woman in a male dominated world which was the case with Greece at that time. But, Medea is different from the rest of women of her time because she does not find peace in bowing her head down and accepting her defeat. Rather, she moves on to using men to achieve her own ends by employing smart skills of determination and manipulation after her husband gives up on their family. Medea has a burning desire for revenge and she goes all the way through to seek it in contrast to how other women would have behaved in that time. Concluding, though it cannot be denied that Medea’s portrayal by Euripides is quite dangerous because it evokes scorn for women like Medea who act as barbarians to seek revenge, truth is that Medea was definitely a woman of exceptional intellectual

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Assignment Example However, their points of view starkly contrast each other. Kaplan chooses to explain globalization as a part of the ability of a nation to find areas within their own economic systems that will allow their natural resources and geographic location to dictate the speed and method by which the country shall modernize its infrastructure and business models. These business models however, are based mostly on the basis of the religion or ethnicity of the region in order to play up on the strengths of the people inhabiting particular locations. Although Kaplan's belief makes sense, since it allows a section of the population to advance socially and economically, it has its own drawbacks and failures as well. The main problem with Kaplan's point of view is that it dooms the divisions within a country, its states, to an interdependence that does not allow room for improvement should other states in the country fail to reach its full potential based upon the ethnic and religious climate in th at region. In effect, Kaplan wants us to believe that if a particular portion / sector of economics in a society functions poorly or ceases to function in totality, then the whole state and its adjoining areas should be seen as failures as well. All states that are located within the same vicinity can be assumed to be failing simply because one portion of the economic sector in that area failed to live up to is full potential. As we all know, such a theory cannot be based upon the reality of any modern situation as all businesses, though interdependent, allows for other entities within their sectors to evolve in order to deal with the impending failure of other sectors. Just because one sector fails does not mean that all the members of that particular business chain shall fail as well. Rather, the failure of one area allows for the growth and evolution of the others within the chain. This is a point of view that, although explained in a highly convoluted way by Wright, his theory p ertaining to Globalization seems to support to a certain degree. In Wright's opinion, Globalization is a business movement that can only be spread far and wide provided that a â€Å"natural leader of a moral revolution† can be found. In his personal opinion, that natural leader can be found in only one country, the United States of America. Basing his beliefs upon the historical fact that America has been leading the world in more ways than one since World War I, he advocates the theory that America must spread globalization but it can only be accurately done so provided America takes on the role of conqueror on a global scale. This is something that he believes in even though he admits to himself and to his readers that globalization actually began far longer that we all thought. It actually dates back to prehistorical times, when technology was in its infancy and the invention of the wheel, the cart, and the use of animals to help move trade from town to turn was actually t hought to have began to modernization of business. The failure of Wirght's belief in America as the de-facto leader in Globalization lies in the fact that he did not take into account the potential for the American economy itself to find itself in a death spiral, thus allowing for other countries, such as China, Korea, and other emerging Asian markets, to finally take their places on the world

Data analysis report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Data analysis report - Assignment Example One of the considerations is the human belief on what the likely outcomes might be and how they may influence the decisions. The stronger the belief that the likely outcomes has an impact which is more favourable, the stronger the willingness/attitude to perform a certain behaviour. Another consideration is the expectations of others and how they might influence ones decisions. This boils down to peer pressure meaning that a certain age group may be influenced by another group, or rather, an individual in a certain age bracket may be influenced by what the other is the said group do. Further, the presence of certain factors which may have an impact on making the various decisions is another consideration taken into account. A combination of the above three considerations gives rise to behavioural intentions. According to Ajzen (1987; 1991; 2002; 2005 and 2008); Kimiecik (1992) and Beck and Ajzen (1991), the more favourable a certain attitude is and it’s accompanying social pre ssure, the stronger the intentions to make the decision. If a person has a personal control of the over the various behaviours, then it is assumed that he/she can perform or make decisions based on the availability of opportunities. However, as Beck and Ajzen (1991) puts it, changing only one belief has no sufficient evidence that attitude will change. Through their argument, a change in one belief may affect anticipated change in another belief. In support of Beck and Ajzen assertions, Godin (1993) believes that balancing the total aggregate of the three beliefs towards a positive direction is the only assurance of attitude change towards making a decision. To Madden, Ellen and Ajzen (1992), one can change the existing beliefs and which affect the implementation of certain behaviours by giving new information leading to the formation of new beliefs which are likely to tilt the balance towards certain behaviour. However, Madden, Ellen and Ajzen (1992) point out that the information given should be as accurate as possible and should be given to all without discrimination if a valid and reliable conclusion is to be made from the findings. This is so because, it is also possible to change believes by giving powerful false information relevant to the believes. This in the short term may produce a change which may not be felt in the long run. At last, the individuals retreat back to the original beliefs prior to the powerful false information. The other important factor is the understanding that the intentions may not always result into attitude change towards behaviour. In this regard, it is always important to link the two so that perceived outcomes can be properly linked producing results (Raats, Shepherd and Sparks 1993). Research Design To gain a deeper understanding of the roles of certain factors which influence the formation of consumer purchase intentions, a study was undertaken. A sample of 150 participants took part. 74 were from the UK while the remaini ng 76 were from Germany. The study data was collected using a questionnaire

Dover Beach Evaporating the Sea of Belief (Matthew Arnold) Essay

Dover Beach Evaporating the Sea of Belief (Matthew Arnold) - Essay Example The poem depicts the seashore at night. The night which at first feels very tranquil for the poet, but this tranquility, suddenly transforms into despair and darkness. Mathew Arnold belongs to the era when Britain was under the influence of industrialization. It was a period of rationalism. The new generation was persistent about finding the logical reasons behind religious affair. It was not the age when you believe everything blindly. The old values had been driven away and new values were taking place of the old values. The mind was very confused. It was the period in which the questions had been arisen against religious faith. The faith of Christianity was thus on stake. Arnold was deeply religious person and so he lamented the deterioration of religious faith that he calls â€Å"Evaporation of the sea of Faith.† The central idea of this poem is the shattering of faith on Christianity. Arnold, like most of his contemporaries was so much disturbed by loss of religious faith in the new and modern generation. To denote the idea of disbelief he has used the imagery of â€Å"Sea of Belief.† It is a typical Victorian poem which reflects the contemporary society which has given up the religious norms and which is travelling towards modernism. This modernism is of course, very hard to accept especially for the sensible people like Mathew Arnold. It is because the foundation of his thoughts and principles was built on Christianity. The change is not at all a happy moment for Arnold, so this poem is a melancholy poem. In this poem Mathew Andrew unwillingly accepts the reality and the changing world. He has used the sea images. The entire poem revolves around the seascape. The sea of faith has been evaporated, disappeared. Arnold wants to be with the old morals and faith but the world does not allow him to accept the religious beliefs completely. It is a typical Victor ian predicament of mind. The sea in this poem is associated with the strong belief in Christianity. The tragedy of the Victorian age was that belief was shattering. The poet’s state of mind is not at all different. He wants his religious belief to be intact. But the New Age is not allowing him to do so. He calls the sea as his belief. Like the depth of sea, he also has a deep belief in Christian values. But when he is staring at sea, he feels that the sea of belief is evaporating. The Sea of Faith Was once, too, at the full, and round earth's shore Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furl'd. But now I only hear Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar, Retreating, to the breath Of the night-wind, down the vast edges drear And naked shingles of the world. The deep sea of faith is disappearing from his mind. The rational mind always suffers a lot as it is not ready to give up his old upbringings but at the same time his logical thinking does not allow him/her to embrace the irr ational religious beliefs. His strong religious foundation again is not ready to accept the modernity undoubtedly as these new ideas are extraterrestrial for him. He is doubtful about his old doctrine and he is reluctant to accept the new ideologies. Almost all Victorian authors, poets have painted the same sketch of this kind of state of mind. In the first stanza Arnold Mathew visualizes the picture of a calm sea. The essence of tranquility and purity is present in the first stanza. sea is calm to-night. The tide is full, the moon lies fair. A note of tranquility and serenity is expressed in the above two line. The poet is very firm with his religious theology. It is the

Informatin systems in business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Informatin systems in business - Assignment Example The results provide an exploratory factor analysis of UTAUT model, demonstrating reliability and validity of the scales of the stated constructs, confirming if the model is a valuable measurement tool for evaluating the users’ intention of use of smartphones. Background to the study Controversies have come up lately over which smartphone is the best to use. Depending on the purpose that one would like to put his smartphone into, preferences are different for different people. According to the article, Blackberry versus iPhone: Which is better for business users? Articles by Hunter Skipworth (2010), show that businessmen have favored Blackberry for long very an iPhone. However, it is clear that the Apple has made an effort to introduce an enterprise feature which is more likely to make it the favorite for many whose attitude is futurists. With iPhone gaining stability due to its fast software update, Blackberry too has its own outstanding merits that make it marketable still. I t is for these and many more reasons that this study was done to analyze the factors determining intention of use of a particular smartphone and not the other one. ... Various major features of Smart phones were investigated to come up with conclusive factors about what really is the key influence of people’s intentions to use smart phones. These features include the keyboards, speed, screen sizes and resolutions software updates, hardware simplicity, battery life, screen type and many more. The questions of study considered are: 1. What makes a certain smart phone the preference for many? 2. What is the difference in intentions and actual usage of different smart phones? 3. How do these intentions relate with 1 above? UTAUT Model Development This study is to illustrate that the Unified Theory of Acceptance and use of Technology (UTAUT) model captures the factors impacting upon the intention and actuality of the use of smart phones. Its aim is to explain users’ intentions to choose and use a certain information system and the factors that affect the usage intentions. It proves the general factual and theoretical basis for understandin g a users’ attitude and acceptance of using an information system. People always have a certain attitude towards a new technology based on factors like experiences, routines, and even .habits (Bandura, 1986). Fig1: The UTAUT model. Source: Taylor & Todd, 1995. The model was developed by reviewing constructs of eight models that had been used to explain behavior of using Information Systems and Technology. These eight constructs that were consolidated are; Theory of Reasoned Action(TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) ),Motivational Model (MM) ) (Davis et al.,1992), the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), a combined theory of planned behavior/technology acceptance model, Social Cognitive Theory, Innovation

Factors affecting participation in certain sports Essay Example for Free

Factors affecting participation in certain sports Essay Peer group Your peers are the people you mix with who have similar interests and backgrounds and are roughly your age. Your peer group has a big influence on the way you behave and the things that you do. This is not always expressed words. If you wear the wrong clothes or do the wrong things you can very quickly feel left out. If you peers approve of an activity, you will feel encouraged to do it. Sadly, peer-group pressure can also force people to give up sports even though they enjoy them. Family Your family can have a similar effect on you as your friends can. We pick up many of our habits and values from home. If your family enjoys sport and gives you the opportunities to participate, then it is likely that you will. Most young people depend upon parents and family for kit and help with travel to sports events. The opposite is again true. If your Family has a negative attitude to physical activity it is likely you will to. Gender There is a mistaken believe held by some people that sports is a mans world. There certainly seem to be few barriers put up to prevent men from participating in physical activity. Far more men Participate in physical activity than women. Race People from minority ethic groups can be discriminated against when it comes to physical activity. Many people have the mistaken belief that they are physiologically different because they are a different colour, and this means they will be good at some activities and not others. For example some people believe that all black people are fast runners and they can not swim very well. This belief could be the reason why we see so many black runners and so very little black swimmers. Socio-Economic The activity you participate in may be determined to a large extent by what you can afford. Activities like sailing, golf and riding can be very expensive so many people from lower socio-economic groups are excluded from them. There are also many activities that cost very little. A kick around in the park with a group of friends, for example, and sport at school are mostly free. Unemployed people are in a difficult situation: plenty of time to fill but not much money. To encourage them, sports facilities often charge less, especially at quiet times of the day. Age Young people are encouraged to participate at school and have plenty of free time to take up sport. It also depends on the activity. To be a good gymnast you need to be young and flexible. Today, however, with computer technology not all youngsters want to spend their free time playing sports and not all sports are open to very young people. People tend to take part less in physical recreation as they get older as they often have more responsibilities and less free time to spend on sport. Stereotyping can mean that older people are discouraged from being physically active. Some older people stereotype themselves and believe that they are too old to take part in physically activity. However, there are many sports that you can enjoy into your old age. All you need is motivation to do it, the right facilities and no barriers to prevent you. Disability A disability may restrict your activities and other peoples prejudice can be a barrier to your participation. But disabled sport has received a much higher profile since the Paralympics games in Sydney, and the efforts of disabled athletes like Tanni Grey-Thompson have provided disabled people with excellent role models. Many sports have charged their rules to suit the needs of disabled people and have set up coaching and competitions for them. Facilities must now include ramps and lifts and special changing rooms so that disabled people can have full access. Access If there is a sports facility near where you live, and there is a good road system and public transport in place, then getting there is made easy. However, many people do not live within easy reach of sports facilities, and the public transport system is poor, so participation is made more difficult. Popularity, Promotion and Role models Participation in many sports varies. Because of media coverage during Wimbledon fortnight, tennis courts across the country are heavily used as seeing role models perform on TV encourages people to play the sport themselves. Not all sports attract media attention, however, and not all media coverage is positive. Some sports have increased in popularity by operating national schemes. Basketball, for example, is much more popular since the Basketball Outdoors Initiative of the 1990s. Thousands of free facilities began to appear in parks and school playgrounds across the country encouraging more people to play. Environment and climate Participation in some activities also depends upon the environment and climate. It is very hard to become a top skier if you live in a very hot country and, if you want to practise mountaineering and you live in Holland, you have got to travel. So it is not hard to understand why countries like Switzerland and Canada produce very good skiers. Britain is traditionally good at sailing because it is an island and surrounded by water, Tradition and Culture Tradition and Culture also affect participation. For examples some cultures disapprove of women taking part in physical recreation in public or in mixed company. This is one reason why many sports centres operate women only sessions. Most sports (like rugby) have had a tradition of being male only. Women have had to work hard to be allowed to participate. Education Your education has a big effect on your attitude to sport physical recreation. If your school is keen on sport you will be encouraged to participate and if you enjoy it, you are likely to continue after you leave. The opposite is also true, however, for those who dislike PE. It is know that there is a drop in participation at the age of 16 when youngsters leave school. This is know as the post school gap and is perhaps caused by the desire to leave all school based activities behind you when you leave. Thankfully, many young people then see the benefits of physical activity and return to it later on in life. Politics The extent to which people take part in a physical activity also depends on their politicians. All governments get involved in sport for one reason or another. For example, facilities cost so much to build that the government usually has to pay at least something towards them. A government may promote sport for all in an attempt to cut the cost of the health service or cut crime. It may promote excellence in sport so as to bring a sense of pride to the country and raise its standing in the outside world. Sponsorship Sponsorship also has an effect on participation, as it is this that brings money into sport. Even local level, small businesses often sponsor teams and help them financially, allowing people to play. How ever sponsors can decide to pull out of the deal very easily and leaves the team needing to find another one or stop playing.

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay In modern competitive business world, every organization strives for excellence. To achieve and maintain this, the organization needs to put in all necessary measures to remain competitive within the industry it finds itself. One of such measures is logistics excellence. (Durin et al 2011). A major contributing function for organizational excellence has to do with the management of its logistics. However in recent times, logistics excellence is taken for granted and presumed to be the norm, but only to be recognized when there emerges some major problem.  [1]   Since the Criminal Libel Law was taken off the statutes books in 2001, the Ghanaian media landscape is currently touted or hipped as one of the most independent media regimes in the West African sub-region. This has led to the proliferation of print and electronic media to the extent that the media market is currently becoming saturated.  [2]  According to the National Media Commission (NMC, 2006), Ghana has 106 newspapers made up of 11 dailies, 67 weeklies, 23 bi-weeklies and five tri-weeklies. More than 50% of the news papers currently in circulation have come into existence in recent years. Many of them have sprung up in the past five years, providing readers with a wide range of new publications. At national level, among the 11 national dailies, the state-owned Daily Graphic is the oldest and most widely-read newspaper in Ghana, and it is distributed in all 120 districts nationwide. Established in 1950 and 100% government-owned, the Daily Graphic currently has the highest circulation figure.  [3]  The companys leadership role in the print media as indicated above began before the advent of the repeal of the criminal libel law. It is interesting to note that Ghanaians casually refer to any media print at first glance as graphic. This not withstanding demonstrates the strength the company draws from this brand name. However, due to the proliferation of other print media as a result of the repeal of the criminal libel law, fierce competition has started to emerge within this industry. The state owned and private print media market is becoming saturated to the extent that almost all media prints virtually sell at the same price. An example of such are the, Ghanaian Times, The Mirror, The Ghanaian Observer, 90 Minutes, Accra Daily Mail, and the Weekly Spectator which sells at GH 1.50, whilst others like The Daily Guide, The Dispatch, Daily Graphic, The Guide, The Statesman and Business and Financial Times also sell at GH2.00. One way to retain customers and remain competitive and, at the same time increase bottom-line margins has been to cut down prices. Interestingly, price reduction in this instance may not be very possible because market shares are somewhat fixed and would lead to lesser margins instead. A better way for companies to still make profits and remain viable is to embark on an effective and efficient logistics management system (Christopher, 2011). This is because sales revenue increases would be more difficult to achieve than logistics cost reductions. The effective management of logistics activities such as customer service, distribution and reverse logistics would play significant roles alongside other logistics activities in improving an organizations stance in such an environment. Reverse logistics to a considerable extent is not well known and not practiced within the Ghanaian business environment. This is because logistics has been looked at in most instances from only one perspective. It has always been looked at from the point where products are manufactured, packaged, stored in a warehouse, sold, and then shipped to the customer and the process ends. However there are more dimensions to this. In addition to managing outbound goods, logistics managers are also responsible for the flow of returned goods, re-packaging, including customer service and final disposition of returned items.  [4]   Considering the print media for instance, the issue of unsold media prints could be looked at as waste since they cannot be sold the next day. The need to manage waste materials and returned goods is fast growing in all kinds of industries. Currently, companies notably Xerox, Eastman Kodak, Mobil, Home Depot, and Ethan Allen Furniture to name just a few, have recycling programs that meet the needs of their individual industries.  [5]  Although these are foreign companies, they derive numerous advantages and benefits from the relevance of reverse logistics practices. In a way these could be very much applicable to most organizations in Ghana for which GCGL is not an exception. Undoubtedly, most firms are now recognizing reverse logistics as a component of the total logistics management process. Stock (1998) and Hansen Harps( 2002) advocated that innovative firms that develop an expertise in reverse logistics activities and considers them as a set of business process adds value, generate revenue, improve customer satisfaction, achieve significant cost savings and gain competitive edge in their various markets. The GCGL stands the chance of gaining all these benefits as well as competitive advantage over its competitors in the area of cost reduction, enhanced quality, branding of their product and maximizing customers loyalty when reverse logistics practices are effectively adopted. Reverse logistics has the following benefits: Enhance Customer Service. The customers perspective is one key economic element driving organizations to develop reverse logistics strategy. Customers now consider returns policies when making purchasing decisions. If GCGL makes its returns policies more restrictive while its competitors continue to offer liberal returns policies, the firm will have placed itself at a competitive disadvantage. The whole purpose of logistics strategy is to provide customers with the level and quality of service that they require and to do so at less cost to the total supply chain. ( Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) Distinguish itself with Customers. Embarking on an effective reverse logistics strategy will offer GCGL the opportunity to differentiate or distinguish itself with customers. This is because how a company handles returns is often evaluated by customers as an important factor to choose when a future purchase happens. According to Daugherty et al (2002), a well designed reverse logistics system can promote longer-term relationships. Furthermore, customers are more likely to buy from retailers who outperform other retailers on returns handling. Knock Off Competition. GCGL management will stands to benefit from the knowledge of the companys logistical performance which could be used to influence decisions and aid in the formulation of corporate goals and objectives to offset competition. Achieve Green Image. The GCGL by engaging in reverse logistics stands to gain a good environmental image with the customer which could invariably promote better customer relations. Having such an image can be part of a customer relationship strategy, especially due to the increase of environmental consciousness by society as a whole. The overall reverse logistics programme effectiveness will have indirect benefits for the firm, such as better corporate image or improved levels of customer satisfaction to retain customers and as well stand the competition within the industry. (Jayaraman and Luo2007) Need to Control Costs. Frequently, manufacturers treat recovery of products and packaging as an afterthought. A well-managed reverse-logistics program, however, can bring enormous savings in inventory-carrying, transportation, and waste-disposal costs.  [6]   Enjoys Goodwill. The goodwill associated with practicing an effective and efficient distribution and reverse logistics strategy has not been fully discovered by most companies in Ghana. The Goodwill that GCGL could earn from acting in a socially or environmentally responsible manner can produce real value. This can create substantial customer loyalty.(Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) 1.2 Research Problem In Ghana intense competition within the print media industry has to a large extent stabilized the price ceiling of media prints. The situation has been aggravated by political influences as political parties have delved the opportunity of coming up with their own media prints to propagate party agendas. Whilst GCGL media prints specifically the Daily Graphic has been acclaimed a national newspaper, and hence mostly report on broad national issues, many others focus and take sides on political issues that would interest party members. As a result market shares are more or less stable and only sway when a particular media print covers a more topical or sensational issue that cuts across a general national interest. The likelihood of dwindling margins cannot be over emphasized in such circumstance. The more convenient means for GCGL to make profits is to embark on an effective logistic management to cut down logistics costs and to remain competitive in business. On the other hand most organizations have not fully embraced reverse logistics for reasons best known to them regardless of the benefits that could be realized on embarking on effective reverse logistics practices. The issue is that there is little demand for knowledge within the mindsets because it has been presumed that reverse logistics inherently deals with the least favored aspect of organizational activities (Hansen Harps, 2002). This is because most firms do not view reverse logistics as a core competence but as something to be ignored as much as possible (Hansen Harps, 2002). The print media products normally have life cycles ranging from a day to maximum of about a week. What happens to unsold products and those that are no longer of use to the consumer does not seem to derive much concern from the publishers. This situation does not only create loses but also goes to add filth to our environment causing health and other environmental problems in the long run. Conducting a research to unearth the best possible means for GCGL to improve upon its current logistics management trends and practices, to improve profit margins and as well create value for their products that have ended their life cycle is the main focus of this thesis. 1.3 Research Questions In order to identify the extent of logistics management activities that GCGL is currently engaged in and analyze them, the thesis would seek answers for the following questions: How are the logistics activities pursued in the organization? What distribution system is the company employing? How is return flows managed? 1.4 Research Objectives The study has the following objectives: To identify the logistics and supply chain activities the company is engaged in To identify and assess the effectiveness of the distribution system To describe and assess the impact of reverse logistics practices on profitability 1.5 Significance of the Study The study will bring out any shortfalls that are inherent in GCGLs logistics practices and inform management adequately to develop sound logistics plans. Additionally, it will serve as a reference document for the GCGL logistics department to effectively manage their day-to-day logistics activities. The study will also be beneficial to the companys third party logistics providers, as the document will assist them to adopt the appropriate logistics procedures and hence ensure effective communication and integration among them. The thesis will also be beneficial to other print media organizations as well as those in other industries to focus on reverse logistics strategy as a source of gaining competitiveness amongst others. 1.6 Limitation of the Study 1.7 Thesis Organization The study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction and will comprise the background, problem statement, aims and objectives and significance of the study. Chapter two is the literature review and will highlight existing definitions and works by researchers related to the area of study. Chapter three is devoted to the methodology used in this study. The chapter looks at the study area, design of study, data collection approaches, description of the study, sampling and the constraints/problems encountered and chapter four will summarize the major discussions of the study. Chapter five will highlight on the important issues in the summary and make recommendations. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVEIW 2.1 INTRODUCTION Fierce competition in todays marketplace has forced business enterprises and organizations to invest in and focus on supply chain and logistics management to be more competitive and as well, remain in business. Logistics has now been seen as the growth and dynamic functions in the success of many different operations of an organization. Logistics activities such as distribution communication, customer service, inventory management, materials handling, packaging, and traffic and transportation procurement have led to the growth in telecommunication and transportation technologies (Rushton et al 2006). Whilst logistics is often seen as planning orientation and framework that seeks to create a single plan for the flow of products and information through a business, supply chain management builds upon this framework. It seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities within the pipeline, i.e. suppliers and customers, and the organization itself (Martin Christopher 2011). A lot of research works on the concepts of logistics and supply chain management and their impacts on the successes and failures in industries and businesses have been carried out. This paper will therefore review aspects of the available literature and research works that view logistics and supply chain management in their definitive contexts with special emphases on activities that relates to customer service, logistics distribution systems and Reverse Logistics. 2.2 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS 2.2.1 Logistics Management The term Logistics originated from the military and was used basically to describe the movement of personnel and materials during wars and also in emergencies. It was later adopted by businesses and organizations and became a part of commonly used terminology in professional societies and academic programs, and was defined in various ways to satisfy trends and developments (Rushton 2009). The Council of Logistics Management (CLM), one of the leading professional organizations for logistic uses the term logistics management to describe the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of raw materials, in- process inventory, finished goods and related information from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements (Lambert et-al, 1999). Alan Ruston et-al (2007) defined Logistics Management by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP) as that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements (CSCMP, 2006). Martin Christopher (2011) stated that logistics is the process of strategically managing the procurement, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory (and the related information flows) through the organization and its marketing channels in such a way that current and future profitability are maximized through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Starting from the first definition, although these authors pointed out that the ultimate disposal, recycling and reuse of products should be considered as activities in logistics management, the CLM definition above was silent on them. The definition only took into consideration the forward aspect of logistics focusing on the end product reaching the final consumer according to consumers requirement. The questions here are that; what happens to the product if it does not conform to the customers requirement and also how will the product be managed after the final consumer has exhausted the full use of the product? In other words, CSCMP indicated and emphasized on forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. This definition to a considerable extent answers the questions which were ignored by the CLM as it considered reverse flows in addition. Martin Christopher stressed on how organizations could maximize current and future profitability through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Although the definition did not specifically mention reverse flows, it could be implied that such activities if undertaken could contribute to the organizations profitability. In summary, it could be mentioned with certainty that all the definitions above place some emphasis on logistics activities to typically include inbound and outbound transportation management, fleet management, warehousing, materials handling, order fulfillment, logistics network design, inventory management, supply/demand planning, and management of third party logistics services providers. Additionally the inclusion of sourcing and procurement, production planning and scheduling, packaging and assembly, and customer service were mentioned by Christopher. It is worth mentioning that logistics must be involved in all levels of planning and execution. This has to do with the strategic, operational and tactical levels. Planning at these levels should not be done in isolation else the synergy to be derived from the various functions would not be realized (Lambert et al 2009). Logistics management is therefore an integrating function, which coordinates and optimizes all logistics activities, as well as integrates logistics activities with other functions including marketing, sales manufacturing, finance, and information technology (Alan Mckinnon, 2001). It is essential that positive planning approach is adopted by ensuring that the operation is set up to run properly. The two parts of logistics management has to do with inbound and outbound logistics. One way to envisage the two concepts is about ensuring and managing that the operations are set up to run properly by doing the right thing or preparing for and planning the operation. Thus s upply and material management represent the storage and flows into and through the production process, whiles distribution represent the storage and flow from the final production point through to the customer or end user. Logistics management from this view point is the means whereby the needs of customers are satisfied through, the co-ordination of the materials and information flow that extends from the market place through the firm and its operation beyond that to suppliers. To achieve this, there should be a wide integration within the organization and also a synergy between the marketing and manufacturing within the organization rather than a fragment separate activities (Spekman, KamauffJr et al (1998) Logistics is therefore essentially an integrative concept that seeks to develop a system-wide view point of a firm. It is fundamentally a planning concept that seeks to create a framework through which the needs of the market can be translated into a manufacturing strategy and plan, which in turn links into a strategy and plan for procurement.  [7]   The CSCMP definition laid emphasis of logistics management being part of supply chain management which pre-supposed that other influences on the logistics activities abound to ensure their effective functioning. A working definition for Logistics Management for this thesis would therefore be the (CSCMP 2006), which states that, it is that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. 2.2.2 Supply Chain Management Supply chain management has been mentioned in the (CSCMP 2006) definition for Logistics Management. It referred to logistics management as a subset of supply chain management. Meanwhile these two terms have been used interchangeably in most literature. Supply Chain Management has defined supply chain management as the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion, and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies (CSCMP, 2006). Supply chain here is viewed as a single entity rather than series of fragment element such as procurement, manufacturing and distribution. It goes further to talk about the integration of information systems in the supply chain rather than merely acting in isolation for each of the separate component. It was further indicated that supply chain management is an integrating function with primary responsibility for linking major business functions and business processes within and across companies into a cohesive and high-performing business model Also, it included all of the logistics management activities noted above, as well as manufacturing operations, and indicated that it drives coordination of processes and activities within and across marketing, sales, product design, finance, and information technology (Martin Christopher2011) Christopher (2011) also defined supply chain management as the management of upstream and downstream relationships with suppliers and customers in order to deliver superior customer value at less cost to the supply chain as a whole. From the authors point of view, supply chain is the stream of processes of moving goods from the customers order through the raw materials stage from the supplier, down to the production process, work assembly, and distribution of products to the customer. He argued that supply chain management could be termed as demand chain management to reflect the fact that the chain should be driven by the market, not by suppliers. Also the word chain should be replaced by network since there will normally be multiple suppliers and, indeed, suppliers to suppliers as well as multiple customers and customers customers to be included in the total system. Extending this idea it has been suggested that a supply chain could more accurately be defined as a network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and co-operatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users (Christopher 2011). The CSCMPs and Martin Christophers definitions above both made mention of the fact that supply chain encompasses logistics management which is the supply, materials management and distribution but rather goes further to argue that supply chain incorporates suppliers, suppliers to suppliers , as well as multiple customers which seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities in the pipeline and the organization itself through the sharing of information on demand. Chopra and Meindl (2007) defined supply chain as consisting of all parties involved, directly or indirectly, in fulfilling a customer request. They went on further to say supply chain includes not only the manufacturer and suppliers, but also transporters, wholesalers, retailers, and even customers themselves. Here the supply chain is referring to the customers need or what he or she intends to purchase. This implies that all the stakeholders that are involved in contributing their quota to satisfy the customer should work hand in hand to fulfill that purpose. Christopher (2011) finally indicated that all firms have supply chains of varying degrees, depending upon the size of the organization and the type of product manufactured and managing the chain of events in this process is what is known or referred to as supply chain management. He went further to state that effective management must take into account the coordination of all the different pieces of this chain as quickly as possible without losing any of the quality or customer satisfaction, while still keeping costs down. In essence, whilst logistics management deals with integration of functions within an organization, supply chain management takes care of this integration and extends it across firms in the supply chain. Figure.1 is a diagrammatic representation of logistics and supply chain management indicating how logistics is integrated in supply chain management. Raw material Components Packaging items Bought in part Imported materials Production process Work-in- progress Packaging unitization Finished goods Inventory warehouse Depots distribution End user Supply Materials management Distribution Suppliers Logistics customers Supply chain Supply side Upstream Inbound Demand side Down stream Outbound Information Transport Reverse Logistics = Supply +Materials management +Distribution Supply Chain =Suppliers+ supply +Materials management +Distribution+ Customer (Alan Ruston et al 2007: 5) 2.3 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES The domain of logistics activities is to provide customers with the right goods in the right place at the right time. It ranges from providing the necessary subcomponents for manufacturing to having inventory on the shelf of the retailer to having the correct quantity. The major issue that logistics attempts to resolve is to decide how and when raw-materials, semi-finished, and finished goods should be acquired, moved, and stored.  [8]   Ensuring an efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information as said by Rushton et al (2010) needs an effective and effecient logistics activities to be able to meet customers needs and wants at the right time, and at the right. Lambert et al (2008) and Langley (2009) both outlined the key activities required to facilitate the flow of a product from point of origin to point of consumption to meet the end user as follows: Customer Service Demand forecasting/ planning Inventory management Materials handling Order Processing Packaging Part and Service Support Warehousing and Storage Procurement/ Sourcing Return goods handling Reverse logistics Transportation Distribution Manufacturing 2.3.1 Customer Service Many attempts have been made to define the term customer service. However, depending on the organizations core business that its provides, customer service will differ. Lucas (1996) defined customer service as the ability of knowledgeable, capable, and enthusiastic employees to deliver products and services to their internal and external customers in a manner that satisfies identified and unidentified needs and ultimately result in positive mouth -to- mouth publicity and return business. Lambert et-al (1999) also used the term customer service to describe the process which takes place between the buyer, seller, and the third party. The process result in a value added to the product or service exchanged. He went on further to say that the value added in the exchange process might be short term as in a single transaction or longer term as in a contractual relationship. He again mentioned the value added is also shared, in that each of the parties to the transaction or contract is better off at that completion of the transaction than it was before the transaction took place. Lucas (1996) distinguished between internal customers and external customers. The internal customers he said comprised peers, co-workers, bosses, and subordinates, whilst eternal customers constitute vendors, suppliers, walk-in-customer, various telephone callers. Even though Lambert et al (2009) did not mention internal customers, he captured external customers in his definition and went on further to talk about value creation within the transaction period to achieve a cost effective way in the chain of activities. They stated that the value added products or services are enhanced when the time and place utility between the buyer and seller are met and as well expanded and considered. Such conditions are generally considered as the seven right of customer service. These are the right of quantity, cost, product, customer, time, place, and condition (Rushton et al, 2007). From the above, meeting the needs of customers should be very important in every organization even though it is very difficult in maintaining them and to achieve this is to make sure products and services are rendered at the right time, at the exact place in the right condition, at the right cost to add value to avoid customer complains. Rushton et al (2007), Lambert et al (1999), Christopher (2011) all emphasized on the element of customer service as, pre-transaction element, transaction element and post-transaction element. Where the pre-transaction element focuses on the companys policies concerning customer service. Transaction relates to element directly linked to physical transaction such as order cycle time, inventory availability, condition of goods, system accuracy, product substitution etc. Lastly those elements that occurred after the delivery has taken place is referred to as the post- transaction element and these include the installation of warranty, repairs and service part, return policy, customer complaints and claims. Customer service therefore plays a crucial role in organizations as far as growth and profitability are concerned. 2.3.2 Demand forecasting/Planning Demand forecast is defined as statistically based initial estimate of future demand. It is well indicated that a dem

En Tunisie Le Commerce

En Tunisie Le Commerce En Tunisie, le commerce à ©lectronique connaà ®t un essor notable et il est considà ©rà © comme secteur clà ©.Là ©volution du commerce à ©lectronique est en corrà ©lation avec là ©volution de linternet notamment du haut dà ©bit. En effet, il influence plusieurs secteurs notamment le secteur de tourisme qui se dà ©veloppe en E-tourisme. LE-Tourisme ou le tourisme en ligne peut se dà ©finir comme lutilisation de lInternet et du Commerce en ligne pour vendre des produits ou services touristiques. La dà ©cennie 2000 a fait lobjet dune vaste recomposition du paysage des entreprises du secteur du tourisme à   travers le monde, qui sest manifestà ©e essentiellement par la crà ©ation dun grand nombre dagences de vente en ligne. Les entreprises du secteur touristique sont dà ©jà   habituà ©es à   à ©voluer rapidement pour rà ©pondre à   la demande des consommateurs. En effet, en fonction des modes et des tendances, les voyagistes ou les hà ´teliers doivent innover, crà ©er de nouveaux services et surtout interagir entre eux. Si le tourisme est le leader du commerce à ©lectronique, cest en partie grà ¢ce à   sa dà ©matà ©rialisation. Les internautes ont trà ¨s vite appris à   se substituer aux agences de voyages et aujourdhui les e-touristes sont de vrais spà ©cialistes de loutil Internet. Bien que le e-tourisme tende à   devenir une habitude de consommation pour de nombreux internautes, les e-touristes sont encore des gens à   part. Leurs caractà ©ristiques les rendent orignaux au regard des autres utilisateurs web mais pourtant, ils deviennent de plus en plus accros à   loutil Internet et convertissent le reste de la socià ©tà ©. Chapitre I: ETUDE DU PROJET Introduction Dans ce chapitre, nous prà ©senterons là ©tude prà ©alable qui prend en compte un ensemble de paramà ¨tres tel quune prà ©sentation gà ©nà ©rale du projet et de la socià ©tà © ainsi quune à ©tude du marchà © qui sont nà ©cessaires pour la rà ©alisation de notre projet. I.1. Etude prà ©alable I.1.1. Cadre du projet Dans le cadre de notre projet en informatique de gestion spà ©cialisà © en service en ligne, nous avons effectuà © dans une boite de dà ©veloppement un stage durant 3mois du 1er fà ©vrier jusquà   la fin du mois davril à   fin de rà ©aliser une application de gestion de rà ©servation hà ´telià ¨re en ligne. I.1.2.Prà ©sentation du projet Notre projet porte sur la gestion hà ´telià ¨re qui est une vitalità © indispensable dans le dà ©roulement des actività ©s normales dun hà ´tel. Notre travail a pour objectif la conception et limplà ©mentation dune application de gestion de rà ©servation hà ´telià ¨re qui prendra en compte toutes les contraintes qui peuvent survenir lorsquun client à ©tablit des rà ©servations. A travers notre application, il est possibles de và ©rifier la liste des chambres disponibles selon les crità ¨res souhaità ©s par le client ainsi de les rà ©server afin dà ªtre occupà ©es ultà ©rieurement. I.1.3. Prà ©sentation de la socià ©tà © IC Solutions est une jeune socià ©tà © de service à ©tablie depuis juin 2008 et spà ©cialisà ©e dans les solutions de gestion informatique. Son portefeuille comprend aujourdhui une centaine de clients dans des secteurs aussi varià ©s que lhà ´tellerie, la thalassothà ©rapie, le Golf et les PME/PMI et le systà ¨me back-office. La socià ©tà © est focalisà ©e sur les services à   haute valeur ajoutà ©e et verticales notamment les serveurs bases de donnà ©es (centrales de rà ©servations pour hà ´tellerie de golf) servant de passerelles aux sites de rà ©servation en ligne. Il propose aussi leurs services pour le dà ©veloppement et la mise en place des passerelles et serveurs de donnà ©es pour un dà ©ploiement intranet ou accà ¨s public sà ©curisà © via internet. Les coordonnà ©es de cette socià ©tà © sont: I.2.Etude de lexistant Pour pouvoir prendre des dà ©cisions pertinentes, lentreprise, en tant que systà ¨me ouvert, doit tenir compte de son environnement ce qui inclus un certain nombre de composants qui ne se limitent pas à   ses partenaires à ©conomiques (clients, fournisseurs†¦). Dune manià ¨re à ©tendue, on dà ©finit lenvironnement dune entreprise comme à ©tant  «ensemble des donnà ©es et des variables externes à   lentreprise qui ont une influence sur son fonctionnement et quelle doit intà ©grer à   sa stratà ©gie ».[1] Cet environnement se divise en environnement gà ©nà ©ral et en environnement spà ©cifique. Nous prà ©senterons alors relativement lenvironnement gà ©nà ©ral et celui spà ©cifique puis lanalyse concurrentielle et nous en dà ©duirons lanalyse SWOT. I.2.1. Environnement gà ©nà ©ral Lenvironnement gà ©nà ©ral du projet est lensemble des donnà ©es externes qui linfluence et sur lesquelles elle peut agir .il regroupe tous les facteurs à ©conomiques, juridiques, socioculturels et technologiques. Alor lanalyse PEST (politique, à ©conomique, sociale, technologique) est une mà ©thode trà ¨s importante pour la dà ©marche du projet. v Etude de lenvironnement technologique Dans une situation à ©conomique caractà ©risà ©e par une forte concurrence, les à ©volutions technologiques se traduisent souvent par la remise en cause des rapports de force entre les entreprises dun mà ªme secteur puisque son incorporation rapide dans lentreprise peut lui procurer un avantage compà ©titif, certain durable ou temporaire. Selon notre projet là ©tude de lenvironnement technologique concerne les pays europà ©ens, et le reste du monde y compris la Tunisie. Pour cela, nous devons à ©tudier laugmentation rapide de lutilisation de linternet en Tunisie et en Europe: En Tunisie[2]: LInternet a connu ses dà ©buts en Tunisie en 1996, par le lancement de lagence tunisienne dInternet ATI. Cette dernià ¨re a à ©tà © crà ©Ãƒ ©e pour promouvoirlInternet en Tunisie en tant quopà ©rateur national rattachà © au ministà ¨re des technologies de la communication et du transport. Au dà ©but, lInternet à ©tait limità ©e aux professionnels et pour les particuliers qui souhaitent se connecter à   Internet, ils devaient se rendre dans ce quon appelle un publinet (là ©quivalent du cyber en France). Petit à   petit, lInternet en 56 K a commencà © à   introduire les mà ©nages tunisiens jusquà   ce que lADSL fasse son entrà ©e de manià ¨re plus gà ©nà ©ralisà ©e en 2005. Un an aprà ¨s, et aprà ¨s la tenue du SMSI (Sommet Mondial des Socià ©tà ©s dInformation) en novembre 2006, la Tunisie sest donnà ©e comme objectif daugmenterle nombre dabonnà ©s à   lADSL en ajoutant 120.000 lignes supplà ©mentaires aux 12.000 dà ©jà   existantes. Selon les statistiques de fà ©vrier2007, le nombre dutilisateurs dInternet en Tunisie a atteint 1.393.500 avec un nombre de contrat de 140.189 dont 48.655 contrat à   lADSL. Quant au raccordement à   lADSL, Tunisie Tà ©là ©com est le seul opà ©rateur tà ©là ©phonique à   le faire pour le moment. Le nombre de lignes ADSL a atteint les 305.000 lignes en dà ©cembre 2007. Pour la Tunisie, le nombre dabonnà ©s au rà ©seau Internet / 1000 habitants. En Europe[4]: Selon une à ©tude de lECTA (European Competitive Telecommunications Association) plus de 64 millions dEuropà ©ens avaient accà ¨s à   lInternet haut dà ©bit dans les 25 pays membres de lUE à   la fin du premier trimestre 2006. Le taux de pà ©nà ©tration moyen du haut dà ©bit dans lUE atteint dà ©sormais 14%. Une moyenne honorable comparà ©e au taux de pà ©nà ©tration du haut dà ©bit au Japon (18,3%) ou aux Etats-Unis (17,3%). Avec prà ¨s de 53 millions daccà ¨s au 31 mars 2006, lADSL demeure la technologie daccà ¨s à   lInternet rapide dominante en Europe, captant environ 82% du parc total haut dà ©bit, loin devant le cà ¢ble dont la part de marchà © est restà ©e stable à   16%. Par ailleurs, lUE compte prà ¨s de 677.450 accà ¨s trà ¨s haut dà ©bit par fibre optique, ou technologie FTTH (Fiber to the home). La France accuse un là ©ger retard sur cette technologie par rapport à   certains de ses voisins europà ©ens, notamment la Suà ¨de et lItalie (respectivement 313.000 et 233.000 accà ¨s FTTH), le Danemark (11.971 lignes). Depuis le mois davril au 30 juin 2008, laugmentation a à ©tà © de 3%, ce qui reprà ©sente 448000 abonnà ©s supplà ©mentaires contre une augmentation de 18% (2,53 millions) sur lannà ©e à ©coulà ©e (30 juin 2007 au 30 juin 2008). Ces deux statistiques montrent que malgrà © là ©volution rà ©alisà ©e au niveau dinternet, il reste un à ©cart entre les pays dà ©veloppà ©s et la Tunisie. v Etude de lenvironnement socioculturel Lenvironnement socioculturel englobe tous ce qui culture dachat à   distance, perception dinternet et taux de dà ©tention de cartes bancaires. Le tableau suivant donne quelque indicateur sur le mode de paiement en Tunisie. En Europe[7]: Un Europà ©en sur trois a effectuà © un achat sur internet en 2008. La Commission europà ©enne met en avant la popularità © grandissante de le-commerce. La commissaire europà ©enne en charge de la consommation, regrette cependant que les consommateurs se limitent aux marchà ©s nationaux et nà ©gligent majoritairement les commerà §ants en ligne des autres pays europà ©ens. Le nombre dEuropà ©ens à   avoir achetà © au moins un article sur internet, a grimpà © de 27 % en 2006 à   33 % en 2008 pour sà ©tablir à   150 millions de consommateurs. Cest surtout au Danemark (59%), en Grande-Bretagne (57%) et aux Pays-Bas (56%) que les achats en ligne sont extrà ªmement populaires. v Etude de lenvironnement à ©conomique Il sagit tout dabord du systà ¨me à ©conomique dans lequel à ©volue le projet (systà ¨me capitaliste ou socialiste par exemple) mais il sagit surtout de là ©volution des principales variables à ©conomiques (inflation, croissance à ©conomique, à ©volution du taux de change†¦) qui a une incidence sur la politique du projet (politique dinvestissement, dà ©localisation†¦). v Etude de lenvironnement politique Dans sa stratà ©gie nationale de promotion et de dà ©veloppement du commerce à ©lectronique, la Tunisie met laccent sur la nà ©cessità © de modifier certaines lois lià ©es aux obligations et contrats, à   la vente à   distance, au code pà ©nal et à   lensemble des textes ayant trait aux documents et signature à ©lectronique. Pour cela, elle a menà © les travaux suivants : Ø Modifications des lois:  · Loi n ° 99-89 du 2 aoà »t 1999 : Code pà ©nal (des infractions portant sur le commerce et lindustrie).  · Loi n ° 98-40 du 2 juin 1998 : techniques de vente et la publicità © commerciale.  · Loi n ° 2000-57 du 13 juin 2000 : code des obligations et des contrats Ø Promulgations des lois :  · Loi n ° 2000-83 du 9 aoà »t 2000, relative aux à ©changes et commerce à ©lectronique  · Loi n ° 2004-63 du 27 juillet 2004, portant sur la protection des donnà ©es à   caractà ¨re personnel.  · Loi n °2005-51 du 27 juin 2005 relative au transfert à ©lectronique des fonds. I.2.2. Environnement spà ©cifique Le projet peut influencer certaines variables dans son environnement spà ©cifique ou micro environnement avec laction sur les partenaires, les fournisseurs, les marchà ©s, les concurrents, les clients, la technologie. Et grà ¢ces à   tous ces facteurs, la rà ©alisation de ce projet nà ©cessite une à ©tude stratà ©gique du comportement des consommateurs et de la concurrence. I.2.3. Etude concurrentielle Là ©tude concurrentiellea pour objectif de comparer notre site avec celui des autres compà ©titeurs intervenant dans le mà ªme domaine. Rà ©alisà © par nos analystes, il porte sur tous les aspects qui font la diffà ©rence sur le Web : * La page daccueil : structure et contenus mis en avant * Ergonomie : les outils de navigation privilà ©già ©s * Les meilleurs outils de fidà ©lisation utilisà ©s * Les processus davant-vente et de commande les plus aboutis * Les contenus et les services à   valeur ajoutà ©e * Le niveau dinteractività © et la qualità © de la relation clients-prospects Dans ce cas on va à ©tudier la concurrence qui existe à   là ©chelle nationale puis a là ©chelle internationale. v La concurrence a là ©chelle nationale Traveltodo, agence tunisienne de voyage spà ©cialisà ©e dans la rà ©servation des sà ©jours hà ´teliers et touristiques via internet, a affichà © des acquis performants durant lannà ©e à ©coulà ©e pour atteindre 70000 clients en 2009 contre 18000 clients en 2007. Cette agence prà ©sente tout ce qui est nouveautà ©, promotion et autre offre, il propose aussi la rà ©servation de voyages hors de Tunisie et la possibilità © de payer en ligne votre billet davion, votre hà ´tel ainsi que la location dune voiture sur plus de 1000 destinations à   travers le monde. Traveltodo possà ¨de un site dynamique qui prà ©sente des catalogues et des offres dont la page daccueil est la suivante: Mix marketing: à ¼ Prix: Les utilisateurs cherchent toujours les meilleures offres de tous les sites, alors toutes les agences de voyage en ligne offrent presque les mà ªmes prix pour la rà ©servation dhà ©bergement avec une diffà ©rence limità ©e. Cest pour cette raison, Traveltodo encourage leurs internautes par la rà ©duction des prix à   chaque fois quils rà ©servent plus en utilisant le site pour quils deviennent des clients fidà ¨les. Dautre part, le prix peuvent augmentà ©s ou diminuer selon: type dhà ©bergement type de la chambre vue de la chambre la saison à ¼ Produit: Traveltodo propose leurs produits comme à ©tant des services. Ces services spà ©cialisà ©s dans la rà ©servation comme: hà ©bergement selon la localisation et la catà ©gorie dhà ´tel et la saison. location des voitures billets davion, bateaux†¦.. à ¼ Communication: traveltodo utilise les offres et les promotions comme à ©tant une publicità © de leur service, il les publie sur le site dans la page daccueil spà ©cifique à   chaque saison et disponible pour tout le monde (internaute ou client). Et puisque la page daccueil de nimporte quel site est le miroir de ses services, traveltodo utilise la publication de leur offre comme une mà ©thode dattirer le grand maximum des clients. à ¼ Interface client: cest une interface disponible seulement pour le client, il rà ©pond à   tous ses besoins, elle contient: contexte: la liaison entre les pages est gà ©nà ©ralement rapide à   laide dun simple click, il est basà © sur les caractà ¨res suivants: moteur de recherche disponible pour la facilità © des recherches, toutes les informations lisibles et claires pour la navigation, toutes les taches sont exà ©cutables. communication: la communication entre ladministrateur et le client est une chose trà ¨s importante pour la continuità © des services. La communication peut se faire à   partir de newsletter ou à   partir de-mail ou par le numà ©ro de tà ©là ©phone ou par ladresse locale. contenu: le contenu du site est limage de leurs services. Travel todo prà ©sente une galerie des photos pour chaque hà ´tel avec la description dà ©taillà ©e pour les caractà ©ristiques, il affiche aussi des informations fiables et importantes pour les offres connexion: la connexion est disponible à   travers des liens internes. commercial: dans le domaine de commerce à ©lectronique et le service en ligne, le mode de paiement est un peut risquer, car il se fait totalement en ligne, est le seul moyen cest dutiliser un paiement sà ©curisà ©, comme les services de Paypal (basà © sur linfrastructure financià ¨re existante des comptes et cartes bancaires) ou les services de SPS pour lencodage et le traitement sà ©curisà © des donnà ©es bancaires. à ¼ Critique: le site traveltodo prà ©sente des points forts et des points faibles comme tous les sites: les points forts:  · site guidà © par des liens interne un moteur de recherche  · Autre service disponible  · Paiement sà ©curisà ©  · Mise à   jour pour les offres et les promotions les points faibles:  · Mal prà ©sentation des photos v La concurrence a là ©chelle internationale: Le groupe Promovacances est le spà ©cialiste du voyage en ligne. N °1 Franà §ais de la vente de sà ©jours sur Internet, le site propose aujourdhui loffre de voyages la plus large et la plus complà ¨te du marchà ©, avec plus de 5000 produits rà ©actualisà ©s quotidiennement, sur plus de 200 destinations. Lobsession de ce site est dassurer le meilleur rapport qualità © / prix sur les sà ©jours, circuits, week-ends, hà ´tels, locations, vols, croisià ¨res Lannà ©e dernià ¨re plus de 400 000 clients ont fait confiance. Mix marketing: à ¼ Prix: promovacances est lun des meilleurs sites de rà ©servations en ligne, il propose leurs prix aprà ¨s lanalyse dà ©taillà ©e des autres sites de mà ªme domaine dactività ©. Promovacances cità ©s plusieurs prix de rà ©servation selon: catà ©gorie et localisation dhà ´tel, type des chambres et nombre des personnes catà ©gorie et localisation dhà ´tel, type des chambres et nombre des personnes plus le vol (nombre des personnes). à ¼ Produit: Promovacances propose leurs produits comme à ©tant des services. Ces services ne sont pas limità ©s ils offrent dautres services comme: des idà ©es de vacances des croisià ¨res des offres spà ©cialà ©ess pour les familles et les enfants rà ©servation des billets davion à ¼ Communication: Promovacances utilise les offres et les promotions comme à ©tant une publicità © de leurs services, il les publie sur le site dans la page daccueil, parmi ces offres on peut citer: sà ©jour billet davion ski croisià ¨re à ¼ Interface client: cest une interface disponible seulement pour le client, il rà ©pond à   tous ses besoins, elle contient: contexte: le site est bien crà ©Ãƒ © il contient des informations lisibles et bien prà ©sentà ©es qui rà ©pondent aux demandes de ses utilisateurs . communication: la communication entre ladministrateur et le client est une chose trà ¨s importante pour la continuità © des services offerts. La communication dans ce site peut se faire à   partir de-mail ou par le numà ©ro de tà ©là ©phone ou par ladresse locale . contenu: le contenu du site est limage de leurs services. Promovacances prà ©sente une galerie des photos pour chaque hà ´tel avec une description dà ©taillà ©e, il affiche aussi des informations fiables et importantes comme les offres avec lutilisation des couleurs gaies et attirantes pour attirer le grand maximum des utilisateurs. La navigation est facile entre les pages ce qui facilite la recherche, aussi la mise à   jour rà ©gulià ¨re des promotions et des offres. connexion: des liens lisibles et clairs pour la facilità © des recherches. à ¼ Critique: le site Promovacances prà ©sente des points forts et des points faibles -les points forts:  · Page daccueil bien prà ©sentà ©e  · Les photos et les offres sont bien placà ©es  · lisibilità © et facilità © de navigation -les points faibles:  · Manque danimation au niveau des offres et des publicità ©s I.2.4. Analyse SWOT Lanalyse SWOT: (Forces Faiblesses Opportunità ©s, Menaces) permet didentifier les forces et les faiblesses internes dune entità ©, ses opportunità ©s dà ©volution ainsi que les menaces susceptibles daffecter sa raison dà ªtre ou de compromettre latteinte de ses objectifs. Il est utilisà © pour construire un projet et pour rà ©viser la stratà ©gie dune entità ©. Les opportunità ©s et menaces permettent de dà ©finir les orientations de dà ©veloppement relatives au positionnement externe. Les forces et les faiblesses permettent de dà ©finir les orientations damà ©lioration interne portant sur la structure et le mode de fonctionnement de lentità ©. Entreprise Marchà © Force Faiblesses Opportunità ©s Menaces  · la clartà © et la sà ©curità © de la partie paiement .Clartà © de loffre de contenus et des services .Des promotions rà ©gulià ¨res. .IC-solutions est nouvellement crà ©e. .Manque de clientà ¨le, la socià ©tà © est entrain de prospecter des nouveaux clients. .Manque de personnel. .Letourisme en Tunisieest lun des secteurs les plus dynamiques de là ©conomie de la Tunisieet une source dedevisespour le pays. Le tourisme a un effet dentraà ®nement sur dautres secteurs à ©conomiques, tels que le transport aà ©rien, lartisanat, le commerce et le bà ¢timent .le domaine de tourisme est devenu plus riche à   cause de lencouragement de là ©tat .là ©volution de domaine de E-commerce et E-tourisme .la diversità © des types des touristes .Environnement international de plus en plus concurrentiel .la richesse des services de nos concurrents qui ne se limitent pas à   la rà ©servation hà ´telià ¨re interne mais elle passe au niveau international ChapitreII: Etude et spà ©cification des besoins II.1. Choix du langage de modà ©lisation Pour dà ©velopper une application, il ne faut pas se lancer tà ªte baissà ©e dans là ©criture du code. Il faut dabord organiser les idà ©es, les documenter, puis organiser la rà ©alisation en dà ©finissant les modules et à ©tapes de la rà ©alisation. Cest cette dà ©marche antà ©rieure à   là ©criture que lon appelle modà ©lisation », et pour mener à   bien notre projet, nous avons choisi dutiliser la mà ©thodologie UML. Cest une mà ©thode, une description normative des à ©tapes de la modà ©lisation: les auteurs dUML ont en effet estimà © quil nà ©tait pas opportun de dà ©finir une telle mà ©thode en raison de la diversità © des cas particuliers. IUML comporte 12 diagrammes standards reprà ©sentant autant de vues dun systà ¨me dinformation.Ces diagrammes se rà ©partissent en trois catà ©gories : quatre reprà ©sentent la structure statique de lapplication (diagrammes de classe, dobjet, de composant et de dà ©ploiement) ; cinq reprà ©sentent son comportement dynamique (diagrammes de cas dutilisation, de sà ©quence, dactività ©, de collaboration et dà ©tat) ; trois reprà ©sentent la faà §on dont on peut organiser et gà ©rer les modules qui composent le programme (diagrammes de packages, sous-systà ¨mes et modà ¨les). structure statique structure dynamique Organisation et gestion des modules -Diagramme de classe -Diagramme dobjet -Diagramme de composant -Diagramme de dà ©ploiement -diagramme de cas dutilisation -diagramme de sà ©quence -diagramme dactività © -diagramme de collaboration -diagramme dà ©tat -diagramme de packages -diagramme de sous-systà ¨mes -diagramme des modà ¨les Ces diagrammes sont dune utilità © variable selon les cas et ils ne sont pas tous nà ©cessairement produits à   loccasion de la modà ©lisation. Les plus utiles pour la maà ®trise douvrage sont les diagrammes dactività ©, de cas dutilisation, de classe, dobjet, de sà ©quence. Les diagrammes de composants, de dà ©ploiement et de collaboration sont surtout utiles pour la maà ®trise dÅ“uvre à   qui ils permettent de formaliser les contraintes techniques de la rà ©alisation et la solution technique retenue. II.2. Besoins fonctionnels Le rà ©sultat souhaità © de notre projet est une application web de rà ©servation hà ´telià ¨re qui sadresse aux particuliers cherchant une mà ©thode plus rapide et efficace de rà ©servation hà ´telià ¨re (rà ©servation en ligne), ainsi que chaque hà ´tel dà ©sire publier ses offres. En effet, cette application est composà ©e de Cinq espaces: le premier est lespace extà ©rieur qui est accessible par tout le monde, le deuxià ¨me est lespace membre qui est accessible seulement par les membres inscrits se son les clients. Le troisià ¨me est lespace backoffice du site qui est nest accessible que par ladministrateur. Le quatrià ¨me est lespace responsable dhà ´tel (chaque hà ´tel a son responsable) . Le site doit garantir et assurer un certain nombre de fonctionnalità ©s pour les diffà ©rents utilisateurs du site: linternaute, le client, lagent dhà ´tel, et ladministrateur. Ces besoins sont regroupà ©s dans ce qui suit par type dutilisateur. v Les besoins fonctionnels de ladministrateur Un administrateur est utilisateur spà ©cifique habilità © à   gà ©rer les informations enregistrà ©es dans la base de donnà ©es et passà © dans tous droits de la gestion des utilisateurs à   la gestion de droit daccà ¨s. En bref, ladministrateur nest soumis à   aucune restriction, cela signifie quil a accà ¨s à   toutes les donnà ©es et toutes les informations en temps rà ©el. Un administrateur a pour rà ´le: Ø Sauthentifier Ø Gà ©rer ces utilisateurs Ø Gà ©rer les offres Ø Gà ©rer les messages Ø Mise à   jour Ø Validation final de rà ©servation Ø Faire des statistiques (nombre de la rà ©servation par rà ©gion) Ø La validation de toutes les donnà ©es saisies par les membres inscrits v Les besoins fonctionnels dun internaute Un internaute est dà ©fini comme toute personne pouvant afficher une page sans avoir à   sidentifier au prà ©alable. Ø Consulter catalogues Ø Faire des recherches: linternaute peut avoir accà ¨s aux offres rapidement grà ¢ce à   loutil de recherche, (rapide) par lutilisation de mots clà ©s Ø Sinscrire comme membre: elle seffectue en passant par deux à ©tapes. En premier lieu, linternaute remplit un formulaire oà ¹ il saisit des informations personnelles. En second lieu, il reà §oit un email de validation qui lui permet de valider son compte. Ø Consulter les offres Ø Contacter ladministrateur v Les besoins fonctionnels dun client Un client est une personne enregistrà ©e dans la base de donnà ©e et pouvant gà ©rer dautres fonctionnalità ©s autre que la consultation. Ø Sauthentifier Ø Faire des recherches: linternaute peut avoir accà ¨s aux offres rapidement grà ¢ce à   loutil de recherche (rapide) par lutilisation de mots clà ©s Ø Consulter catalogues Ø Effectuer rà ©servation Ø Payer rà ©servation Ø Consulter et sà ©lectionner les offres Ø Consulter son espace Ø Gà ©rer ces rà ©servations v Les besoins fonctionnels dun agent dhà ´tel Un responsable dhà ´tel est une personne qui a le droit de gà ©rer son espace (Hà ´tel) et leur base de donnà ©es et na aucune relation avec les autres espaces des autres hà ´tels c.-à  -d. chaque hà ´tel a son responsable. Il peut: Ø Sauthentifier Ø Gà ©rer hà ´tel (ajouter, modifier, supprimer des informations) Ø Gà ©rer catalogue (ajouter, modifier ou supprimer des photos) II.3. Besoins non fonctionnels La spà ©cification des besoins est une description de lensemble des contraintes (esthà ©tiques, ergonomiques et techniques) caractà ©risant le site pour que les besoins fonctionnels soient opà ©rationnels. II.3.1. Les Contraintes esthà ©tiques En ce qui concerne le choix des couleurs, on a utilisà © le bleu, le blanc, le noir. Le bleu : cest une couleur qui revà ªt un caractà ¨re neutre, dacceptation globale, dà ©là ©vation, de paix intà ©rieure et de calme. Aussi Le bleu est la couleur de la fraà ®cheur, de limagination et de la paix et à ©galement celle de la royautà © et de la noblesse. Le blanc: La couleur blanche est le symbole de la puretà © et de linnocence. Elle est la rà ©union de couleurs primaires et cest sans doute pour cela, outre sa couleur neutre, quelle se marie avec tout. Mieux, elle harmonise le tout : agrandit lespace, le purifie, lui donne une touche dà ©là ©gance, donne du reflet aux autres couleurs. En un mot, elle illumine. Le noir: Le noir est là ©là ©gance et la distinction par excellence. Pourtant sombre, cest la couleur du luxe, de la richesse et de sà ©rieux. II.3.2. Les Contraintes dergonomie Les contraintes ergonomiques concernent la faà §on dont les utilisateurs vont pouvoir utiliser le site.  § La navigation doit à ªtre simple et claire. Le navigateur doit pouvoir dà ©couvrir tous les liens et ait accà ¨s à   toutes les pages sans à ªtre perdu.  § Pour la lisibilità © il faut sassurer de la clartà © des liens et du contenu de telle sorte que le navigateur puisse trouver tout ce quil dà ©sire le plus vite possible.  § Il faut sassurer que le contenu soit bien structurà © et bien organisà © pour attirer un plus grand nombre de visiteurs et les inciter à   passer une durà ©e plus longue à   naviguer sur ce site. II.3.3. Les Contraintes techniques La crà ©ation dune application web nà ©cessite lutilisation dun langage de programmation qui permet la manipulation des informations qui sont stockà ©es dans une base de donnà ©es. Pour crà ©er R-Hà ´tel, nous avons recours au langage PHP, JavaScript et MySQL pour crà ©er la base des donnà ©es du fait que nous avons assez de connaissances sur ces langages. II.4. Formulations des besoins sous forme de cas dutilisations II.4.1. Diagramme de cas dutilisation a-Dà ©finition Un cas dutilisation est une faà §on dutiliser le systà ¨me. Le terme cas dutilisation est explicite : dans quel cas tel acteur utilise-t-il le systà ¨me ? Chaque rà ©ponse à   cette question est donc par dà ©finition un cas dutilisation. Les cas dutilisation font aujourdhui partie intà ©grante dUML et constituent dailleurs le premier crità ¨re à   prendre en compte dans le choix de la mà ©thode associà ©e à   UML. Ils font rà ©fà ©rence aux acteurs, aux choses externes au systà ¨me et qui communiquentavec le systà ¨me. Un cas dutilisation est constituà © dun ensemble dinteractionsentre acteur(s) et systà ¨me. Cette caractà ©ristique est extrà ªmement importante : les cas reprà ©sentent des interactions. b- Les diffà ©rentes relations entre cas dutilisation Les cas dutilisation servent à   dà ©finir les besoins des acteurs et à   identifier dans quel but vont-ils se servir du systà ¨me. Un cas dutilisation exprime les interactions entre les acteurs et le systà ¨me et apporte une valeur ajoutà ©e à   lacteur concernà ©. Une figure comme une personne humaine ou un robot qui peut à ªtre plusieurs acteurs pour un systà ¨me, cest pourquoi les acteurs doivent surtout à ªtre dà ©crits par leur rà ´le, ce rà ´le dà ©crit les besoins et les capacità ©s de lacteur. Alors Un acteur agit sur le systà ¨me. Dautre part, une à ©clipse reprà ©sentant le nom du cas dutilisation soit la tache à   effectuer. Un acteur peut avoir plusieurs rà ´les et peut à ©galement hà ©riter les rà ´les dautres acteurs. Participation de lacteur signalà ©e par une flà ¨che entre lacteur et le cas dutilisation Les relations entre cas dutilisation sont dà ©finies comme suit: Les inclusions: Dans ce type dinteraction le premier cas englobe lautre et son issue dà ©pend souvent de la rà ©solution du second. Ce type de description est utile pour extraire un ensemble de sous comportement commun à   plusieurs tà ¢ches, comme une macro en programmation. Elle est reprà ©sentà ©e par une flà ¨che en pointillà ©e et le termeinclude. Les extensions: Les extensions (Extend) reprà ©sentent des prolongements logiques de certaines tà ¢ches sous certaines conditions. Autrement dit un cas dutilisation A à ©tend un cas dutilisation B lorsque le cas dutilisation A peut à ªtre appelà © au cours de lexà ©cution du cas dutilisation B. Elle est reprà ©sentà ©e par une flà ¨che avec le termeExtend. Ce type de relation peut à ªtre utile pour traiter des cas particuliers ou prà ©ciser les objectifs, ou pour tenir compte de nouvelles exigences au cours de la maintenance du systà ¨me et de son à ©volution. Les gà ©nà ©ralisations: La troisià ¨me relation est la relation de gà ©nà ©ralisation ou spà ©cialisation. Le cas dutilisation A est une gà ©nà ©ra